Microsoft Case Essays (1904 words) - Netscape, Netscape Navigator

Microsoft Case There have been many arguments and issues that have been raised with the controversy over Microsoft and the U.S. Department of Justices claim against Microsoft and its founder Bill Gates of monopolistic practices in bundling its internet browser Internet Explorer into its popular Windows computer operating system. By doing this, Microsoft would effectively crush its competitors (its main rival being Netscape Navigator), and acquire a monopoly over the software that people use to access the Internet. I recently heard a listener on NPR (National Public Radio) comment about the monopoly issue between Microsoft and the U.S. D.O.J. that Intellectual endeavors are vastly infinite and thus cannot be monopolized. I wonder if the person who said this has ever tried telling that to Bill Gates. More importantly, is such a statement true? Does computer software constitute an intellectual endeavor that cannot be monopolized? To answer this issue, an inductive argument can be applied to determine if Microsoft truly has a monopoly over the computer industry. To say that something is infinite implies that there is an endless supply of it. Is this the case in terms of the Internet and the software that is used to navigate or explore the Internet as the two leading Internet Browsers have been dubbed by their makers? The resources of the Internet may seem infinitely vast, but it is wholly finite. There is an abundance of information out there on the Internet that it seems unlikely that any one com pany or even a country like the U.S. could ever monopolize this vast data network. By the nature of how the Internet works and how information is stored and shared on the network, it is true that a monopoly cannot be held over the intellectual information stored within the Internet. On this point I will accede to the original authors claim that intellectual endeavors cannot be monopolized, but this is vastly different from the issue that stands before Microsoft and the U.S. Department of Justice. The question that must be distinguished is not if Microsoft will gain a monopoly over the Internet, but if it will acquire a monopoly on how people access the Internet. These two are wholly separate issues. This is not a question of control of intellectual information, but the means by which people gain *access* to that information. Even if the information provided by the Internet was infinite, the tools by which to get to that information is not. And thus a monopoly of the software to gain access to the Internet is very much possible. There are many corridors and keys that allow someone to gain access to the Internet. The real question here is whether Microsoft is seeking to widen its doors at the expense of others and at the same time seeking gatekeeper access to the Internet by seeking to obtain the only key that allows access to the Internet. A metaphor of this problem can be explained through a library building that has many entrances in which to reach the knowledge of books contained within. Is Microsoft seeking to close off the other entrances of other providers so that the only access is through its entrance? It would be very tempting to say yes, but that would be wholly unfair. Now that the problem and issue which is presented to us is clear, an examination of whether or not Microsoft is violating any anti-trust (anti-monopolistic) laws can now proceed. Before he installed Windows 95, John Dodge connected to the Internet using software from a Microsoft competitor, CompuServe's Internet in a Box. Not anymore. Windows 95 silently disabled a key piece of his setup and made it too difficult for him to reinstall it. Dodge was not a novice. He is senior executive editor of the trade journal PC Week and so had access to the highest level support engineers. Even software professionals learn to take the path of least resistance, in this case, the path leading to Microsoft. He has become a regular user of the new Microsoft Network, though he has trouble with its Internet features. Still, he believes Microsoft executives when they deny trying to gain market share by sabotaging competitors' software. He just wonders whether Microsoft has

Frogs Amphibian and Essays Research Papers

Frogs Amphibian and Essays Research Papers Frogs: Amphibian and Essays Research Papers Frogs are usually small animals that have smooth, moist skin, bulging eyes, and external eardrums behind the eyes; the adults lack a tail. Frogs have long hind legs, and most species can take long leaps. Many species also have webbed feet, making them excellent swimmers. Most frogs, especially males, are quite vocal. As the frog forces air through the voice box, or larynx, the vocal cords vibrate to make calls distinctive of its species. A much louder sound is produced by the males of species that possess vocal sacs, which swell enormously when the frog calls to attract a mate.... [tags: essays research papers] 413 words (1.2 pages) FREE Essays [view] Frogs - Frogs are needed for everyday life. They are part of pond life. Each animal is important because even in the pond, there is a food chain. Frogs are amphibians, animals that spend half of their lives under water, and remainder on land. The first frog appeared in the early Jurassic period about 200 million years ago. Frogs live on every continent except Antarctica, but tropical regions have the largest amount. Like all amphibians, frogs spend half their lives near water because they must return to the water to lay their eggs.... [tags: essays research papers fc] :: 1 443 words (1.3 pages) FREE Essays [view] Frogs - Frogs are amphibians in the order Anura. The order Anura is broken down into 22 different families of frogs and toads. Although they belong to the same order, frogs and toads are different in a lot of ways. Some of the more distinct differences are their skin and where they live. Frogs usually have smooth moist skin and toads usually have dry watery looking skin. Frogs spend most of their lives in or near water and toads spend more time on land. Amphibian means "double

Heres how to get that job, even if youre underqualified.

Heres how to get that job, even if youre underqualified. Typical job search wisdom says you shouldn’t send off resumes to jobs you know you just don’t have the qualifications to land. But there are some circumstances, especially in tech, where a job might be just beyond your reach, but still attainable if you know how to work what you have to its full potential. Here are a few strategies to help you craft a job-seeking persona that will help you shoot beyond your experience level. After all, if you’re trying to break into a new field, how is it possible for you to have 3-5 years experience anyway? Try these tips instead of writing off your ideal job as a lost cause.Showcase the skills you do have.You might not tick every box they seek, but it’s possible that you tick some boxes with more gusto than anybody else applying. Play up what you do have, and then take the focus away from their list and make your own list- you might have skills they didn’t realize they needed for their open position. Make a case t hat your unique combination of skills is actually even better suited for the job, and then go on to explain how and why.Focus on your potential.Even if you don’t have a specific knowledge base or set of skills, show you have the desire and potential to learn whatever you’ll need to know. Play up your motivation and drive. Emphasize the speed of your learning curve, and explain how quickly you acquired expertise in something previously. Don’t just tell them you’ll hit the ground running and pick up what you don’t have on the fly. Show them how you’ve done this throughout your career.Fill in your gaps.Use your cover letter to provide context for whatever skills and experience you lack, and as a way of smoothing over the holes they might see in your resume. Make an upbeat, short-but-sweet case for why they ought to give your resume, despite its holes, a second look. Be honest. You’re not a perfect candidate, but you might just be the per fect person for the job.Hold the recruiter’s hand.Don’t just slap down the bare facts of your skills and experience and hope whoever reads your resume is trained to read between the lines and construct your ideal candidacy for you. Connect the dots for them. Synthesize everything into one big picture for them. Make it clear- in your cover letter, on your resume, and in the interview.Stay positive.In your honesty, stay away from negative language like â€Å"I don’t know†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I’m not qualified to†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or â€Å"I’ve never done†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Frame things with a bit more optimism, like: â€Å"I’m eager to explore†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I’d love to work on†¦Ã¢â‚¬  etc. Be aware of what you don’t know and don’t have going for you right now, but also make it clear that you are conscious of what you lack and are eager to do what needs to be done to get up to speed.When in doubt, ask.If you’r e on the fence and not sure whether to throw your application into the pile, send a quick email off to the recruiter asking them to clarify what they mean by â€Å"proficiency in _____.† It will save both parties time and energy in the end.Give them what they don’t even realize they want.If you want it badly enough and have the drive and guts to go for it, you’re halfway there. Concentrate on showing your passion and tenacity. The rest, unless you’re way off the requirements mark, can usually be learned on the job with enough work behind the scenes. Show the proper level of excitement, demonstrate how close you are to being their ideal, and let them see just how hard you’ll work to get up to speed.

Importance of Effective Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Importance of Effective Communication - Essay Example Effective communication is important for a successful relationship among peers. Effective communication leads to a better interpersonal role and through this approach a person can gain popularity and will be able to motivate or influence other people. How can the quality of communication be judged This is rather simple if we take the written modules in consideration. That is how well the author has related the matter to the subject. In the verbal context it is a bit different. Having a strong vocabulary is just not enough for becoming a good communicator as while delivering a message directly words are just about 7% effective, the tone is around 38% effective and the rest is judged by the nonverbal cues given by the speaker. This is why a gloomy dialogue expressed by a charismatic personality is of more importance as compared to a strong statement made in an in-effective tone. Strengths regarding communication in my context are that I am easy going and fain familiarity with other ind ividuals quite quickly as I am more affable. My strengths are that I can easily manage groups due to my understanding and simple use of language. My point is based on cogency as I prefer no hesitation in delivering my point of view and another important point about good communication is that let the speaker finish and then cite your view. This also improves upon communication prospect and the person utilizing this is considered a good communicator. Nonverbal communication The other fact that can be related to better communication is the ability to handle the kinesics and the non-verbal cues. Non-verbal cues include eye contact, body movement and postures, and most of all the tone of delivery. I believe that good eye-contact entails one as being a better communicator and it is vital if delivering strong messages and in-person contact. Keeping a measurable distance from the interacting person is a good approach and it is regarded as a good conduct in many cultures. But one is not to s tand too far as it shows the avoidance factor. People like to free up space in between themselves and the present environment so that they can produce their messages more effectively and easily. My case is that I am able to convey my message without the need of personal space. The personal space does not influence my mode of message delivery. Dynamic Non-verbal factors of Communication Next I would like to introduce the dynamic non-verbal factors. These include eye graze, body movement with regard to the statement, gestures, paralanguage and time frame. What I mean by body movement with regard to the statements is the point that your body should act in accordance with your message delivery. If you are delivering a message regarding something that has increased then the arm movement should (if required) should be 'raising the level'. Similarly eye contact is of prime importance and the ability to understand this feature is also of much substance. This can lead to the avoidance of man y undesirable consequences. Message Delivery I think that denying someone's message is a wrong act as we should try to convince him in such a way that he himself identifies the consequence. Saying 'NO' is something that is regarded as bad in the context of effective communication.

Is technology an invasion of privacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Is technology an invasion of privacy - Essay Example The development of science in equipping the authority with methods of spying is not expected to end with wiretapping. Brand eisprescient and haunting words evidently apply nowadays, as the mark between science fiction and science is incessantly redrawn. This paper will show how technology is an invasion of privacy. Contemporary technologies for amassing personal information that surpass the physical, freedom enhancing restrictions of the ancient means are relentlessly appearing. They prod more deeply, extensively and quietly than traditional techniques, transcending obstructions (whether distance, walls, darkness, time or skin) that historically sheltered personal data. The boundaries that have defined as well as given authenticity to social groups, systems and the individual are progressively permeable lacking special validity. The influence of private and governmental organizations to coerce disclosure (whether centered on circumstance, technology, or law) and to collect, analyze a nd disseminate personal data is growing swiftly(Lyon& Zureik 45).The world is converting into a transparent community of record in that documentation of the history, present identity, location, physiological and communication, and psychological behavior and states is more and more possible through technology, and people’s privacy is no longer private. With extrapolative DNA and profiles, there are even alleges to being able to see individual futures. Collection of information often ensues invisibly, remote and automatically-being fabricated into routine undertakings. Awareness and unpretentious approval on the involvement of the individual might be lacking. The extent of personal data collected is increasing. Fresh technologies hold the capacity to disclose the unknown, unseen, withheld or forgotten. Like the unconscious or the atom discovery, they reveal tads of reality, which were previously concealed, or did not encompass informational clues. Individuals are in a way turne d inside out (Foucault 23). To be living as well as a social individual is to give off inevitably signals of continuous information-whether into the mode of heat, motion, pressure, brain waves, cells, perspiration, olifacteurs, sound, garbage, or waste matter, and more acquainted forms, for instance, visible behavior and communication. These fragments are awarded new connotation by modern surveillance technologies, thereby invading peoples’ privacy. In a value-added, hotchpotch process, machines (regularly with only a slight aid from their support system) may discover significance in combining and surfacing heretofore futile data (Lyon& Zureik 45).The proportion of what persons know concerning themselves (or are able to know) vs. what experts and outsiders can know about them has budged away from the person. Data in varied forms from extensively separated geographical regions, establishments and times can be certainly merged and examined. In comparatively unrestrained fashion , fresh (and old) establishments are capturing, merging and vending this data, or placing it to unique internal usages (Laudon 90). Technology is an invasion of privacy through the fresh information technologies that encompasses larger issues concerning the multifaceted inter-relations of society and technology;

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Biology Essay

Secretors And Non Secretors In Human Population Biology Essay Human population can be categorized into secretors and non-secretors. They are categorized on the basis of presence or absence of the blood group antigens (A, B and H) in the body fluids and secretions, such as saliva, sweat, tears, semen, serum, mucus present in the digestive tract or respiratory cavities etc. Secretors are individuals that secrete blood group antigens in their body fluids while non-secretors are the individuals that do not secrete them in their body fluids and secretions. It is a known fact that ABO blood type is controlled by blood type coding genes present on the chromosome 9q34 but the secretor status of an individual is decided by interaction of a separate gene (called secreting gene) with these blood type genes. The presence of the secreting gene in a persons genome makes him a secretor and absence makes him a non secretor. The gene is designated as (Se) for Secretors and (se) for Non-secretors and it is entirely independent of the blood type A, B, AB or O. The individuals secreting antigens in the body fluid are designated as ABH secretors in blood banks. Individuals having O blood group secrete antigen H, A blood group secrete A and H antigens, B blood group secrete B and H antigens in the fluids. A secretor gene helps a person to gain a degree of protection against different environmental conditions especially the micro flora of a particular environment and also the lectins present in them. It helps them in promoting the growth of friendly, stable blood type intestinal bacterial ecosystem which depends on the blood type antigens present in the mucus of an individual. Secretor status does alter the carbohydrates present in the body fluids and their secretions and hence it also affects and influences the attachment and persistence of the micro flora present in the body. Secretors are at a higher advantage than non-secretors. Non-secretors have a potential health disadvantage. They possess many metabolic traits such as carbohydrate intolerance, immune susceptibilities. Different tests are available for determining an individuals secretor status. Most common test uses saliva or other body fluids of an individual for testing the secretor status. These tests are based on the princi ple of Agglutination Inhibition where the antigens are neutralized by the corresponding antibodies so that these antibodies will not be further be available to neutralize or agglutinate the same antigens residing on the red blood cells. ELISA could also be used for determining the presence of the secreted Lewis antigens in the saliva or other body fluids. Statistics Series, Place Reference Number Tested % Secretor % Non-secretor Frequency Frequency Negroes,New York (5) 178 61.2 38.8 0.38 0.62 Danes,Copenhagen (6) 263 74.0 26.0 0.49 0.51 Japanese,Japan . 424 75.7 24.3 0.51 0.49 Germans,Berlin (7) 363 78.0 22.0 0.53 0.47 Poles,Poland (8) 88 79.4 21.6 0.54 0.46 Whites, New York (9) 74 82.4 17.6 0.58 0.42 Finns, Helsinki (10) 196 86.3 13.7 0.63 0.37 American, Indians,New Mexico (11) 69 98.5 1.5 0.88 0.12 American, Indians, Utah (12) 79 100.0 0 1.00 0 The alleles Se and se differ in the frequency and have an anthropological value. They occur in different frequency in different populations. They have a high frequency in the American Indiana and a low frequency in the southern Indians. In US 20% of the population is secretors whereas 80% of the population consist of non-secretors. The fusion allele of the FUT2 (secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase) gene at a high frequency and a new se385 allele in a Korean population SECRETOR AND NON-SECRETOR A person secreting blood group antigens into the body fluids and other secretions like saliva, semen, tear, mucous in the digestive tract and respiratory cavities are named as secretors. In similar terms they put their blood type antigens in the body fluids. They secrete antigens according to their blood type, A secrete antigen A and H, B secret antigen B and H, O secrete antigen O and AB secrete A, B and H antigen. Secretors expresses Lewis b (Leb) antigens on the RBC where as non-secretor expresses Lewis a (Le a) on their RBC.These antigens in the body fluids give additional protection to the individual against the various microorganisms and the lectins present all around us. 15- 20% of the population consists of non-secretor. These individual fail to secrete the blood group antigens in their body fluids hence they become susceptible to bacterial and superficial yeast infections. A large no of them sometimes also suffer from the autoimmune disorder. This could also be correlated with the secretor and non-secretor phenotype. The body secretions of secretors and non-secretors differ quantitatively and also qualitatively. The type and quantity of the antigens present in it differ among different individuals. In some cases the non-secretors may contain the A and B antigens in the saliva but the quantity is less and even quality is very low hence they have similar functional problem. There are certain properties which are specific for secretors and differ in non-secretors. Some are listed below: Intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity ABH secretor correlates the activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase present in the intestine. Non-secretors have low activity of alkaline phosphatase and serum alkaline phosphatase which is responsible for the breakdown of fat and assimilate calcium. Low molecular weight alkaline is present in both secretors and non-secretors and high molecular weight alkaline phosphatase is present only is secretors. Bacterial flora The ABH blood types influence the population of bacteria residing in the local vicinity of the gut mucin glycoproteins. Bacteria produce enzymes that have the capability to degrade the terminal sugar of ABH blood type antigens and which are consumed as food by them. The B antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach the terminal alpha-D-galactose and A antigen degrading bacteria produce enzyme to detach N-acetylgalactosamine which are used as a source of food by them. Blood clotting The secretor and the ABO genetics influence each other and influence the variance of the plasma concentration of vWf upto 60%. Raised levels of factor VIII and vWf may cause thrombotic and heart disease in future. Secretors have the slowest clotting time, thinnest blood, least tendency of platelet aggregation, low amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf). The non-secretors have highest clotting time, thick blood, high amount of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWf) and low bleeding time. The blood viscosity is also influenced by the secretor phenotype. Lewis Phenotype Clotting Characteristics Le (a- b-)  Ã‚  highest activity of factor VIII and vWf Shortest bleeding times (especially in A, B and AB) Le (a+ b-) intermediate activity Shorter bleeding times (especially for O) Le (a- b+) lowest activity of factor VIII and vWf Longest bleeding times (especially for O) Lewis Blood Type and Clotting Factors Immunoglobulin levels ABH non-secretors have low levels of IgG immunoglobulin. The secretion of different concentration of different components of the blood group substances is controlled by the secretor gene and it also affects the phagocytic activity of the leucocytes which provides an added advantage to the non-secretors. The leucocytes of the non-secretors possess a greater ingestion power when compared to the secretors. The O and B blood group non-secretors have the highest phagocytic activity. The presence of level of anti-I in the serum of an individual is affected by the ABO group, secretor status and sex of the individual. The secretors females have a high level of anti-I in the serum as compared to the males. The non-secretor have low levels of IgA and IgG antibodies and hence have frequent problems with the heart valve. Genetics and Biochemical pathways The secretion of the blood group antigens in the body fluids and other secretions are genetically influenced by certain allelomorphic genes. Secretor gene contains two alleles Se and se. Se is dominant and hence is present in the homozygous or heterozygous condition in the secretors which lead to the secretion of antigens into the body fluids. se is recessive allele and is present in non-secretors in the homozygous condition. SeSe and seSe produces a dominant secretor phenotype and sese produces a recessive non-secretor phenotype. Basically three genes are responsible for the formation of the A and B antigens. They are namely ABO, Hh, and Sese genes encoding glycosyltransferases which produces the A and B antigens. H antigen present in the individual with O blood group is the precursor for the formation of A and B antigens. H antigen act as a backbone on which the A and B antigens are built up. The O gene is considered as amorphic. The allele Hh and Sese reside on each locus and are closely linked together. It is also suggested that one of the allele has arisen by the gene duplication of the other. The H allele is responsible for the production of H antigen on which antigen A and B are built. The second allele on the same locus is really rare. The product related to this allele hasnt been discovered yet and hence it is considered as amorph. The oligosaccharide responsible for the formation of the A and B antigen can exist in a simple linear fashion or a complex branched fashion. Infants A, B and H antigens contain high amount of linear chained oligosaccharide whereas oligosaccharides present in an adult contain high amount of branched chained oligosaccharides The A and B antigen is synthesized from a common intermediate known as substance H. The conversion is carried out by the addition of a sugar molecule to the non reducing end of the H oligosaccharide chains. This addition affects the reactivity of H antigen. The ABH substances are secreted in the Urinary respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract by mucous glands residing there. The secretor gene regulates the synthesis of blood group antigens in the superficial glands of gastric and small intestinal mucosa. The secretors and non-secretors produce A and B substances which are basically glycoproteins in pylorus and Brunners glands and produce A and B substances those are soluble in alcohol and glycosphingolipids in nature. The secretors also produce ABH substances in the prostate and lactating mammary glands. The secretion of breast is rich in H substance but poor in substance A and virtually absent in substance B. The synthesis of these substances in the exocrine acini of pancreas and secretory cells of sweat gland is not controlled by the secretor gene. The blood groups substances were also detected in the collecting tubules and calyxes of the secretors but it could not be concluded that whether they are produced by the kidneys or are generally excreted. These secretions were noticed in the eight to nine weeks old salivary glands and stomach and later it appears throughout the gastrointestinal tract. Glycosphingolipids carrying the A or B oligosaccharides are present on the membranes of RBCs, epithelial and endothelial cells and are also present in the plasma in the soluble form. The glycoproteins carrying the similar A and B oligosaccharides are responsible for their activity in the body fluids. In the body fluids they are present in the secreted form. The A and B oligosaccharides which do not contain the carrier proteins are present in the milk and urine. The chromosome 19 containsFUT 1 and FUT 2 genes which code for fucosyltransferase. FUT genes numbered from 1-7 and form clusters which are responsible for the production of enzymes called as fucosyltranferases. The cluster is located on chromosome 19q13.3. Fucosyltranferase helps in the formation of fucose moiety which is added to the H antigen and further gylcosylate the A or/and B antigens. H antigen is a basic blood group antigen present in each and every human being but the content varies in different individuals of the same ABO group. A general pattern indicates that its strength varies as O>A2>A2B>B>A1>A1B. Water soluble H antigen has been demonstrated in the saliva and the body fluids of the individuals.H antigens are fucose containing glycan units which are present on the glycolipids or glycoproteins residing on the erythrocytes membrane or in the secretions. The fucosylatedglycans are the substrate for the enzyme glycosytransferases that are responsible for the formation of the epitopes for A, B and Lewis blood group antigens. Secretors contain both the alleles whereas non secretor contains the null allele for FUT2 gene. The FUT 2 gene codes for fucosyltranferaseenzyme in the exocrine tissues which lead to formation of antigens in the body secretions and body fluids. The A and B genes produce glycosyltranferase that add sugar to oligosaccharide chains that is converted to H antigen. The H antigen are constructed on the oligosaccharide chain. The oligosaccharide chains could be of two type : Type 1 and type 2. 1 carbon of the terminal 6-carbon sugar b-D-galactose (Gal) is linked to the number 3 carbon of subterminal  N-acetyl-glucosamine  (GlcNAc) in Type 1 chains and to the number 4 carbon of GlcNAc in Type 2 chains. The glycosphingolipids present in the plasma and on the membranes of glandular and parenchymal cells and glycoproteins present on the cell surfaces or body fluids carry either the type 1 or type 2 chains. The glycolipids antigens present on the RBC contain type 2 chains. A gene-specifies N-acetyl-galactosaminyl-transferase and the B gene-specifies galactosaminyl-transferase and add   GalNAc   and  Gal   respectively in alpha (1-3) linkages to the same Gal which is acted on by the H gene transferase. The H gene produces fucosyltransferase that add fucose to the terminal Galactose molecule of type 2 chain. It forms an alpha (1-2) linkage. A and B antigens are constructed when the A and B transferases attach respective sugars to the type 1 or type 2 chain substituted with Fucose. The A alleles encode UDP-GalNAc: Fuc alpha1->2 Gal alpha1->3 N-acetyl-D-galactosaminyltransferase (alpha 1->3 GalNActransferase or histo-blood group A transferase). The B alleles encode UDP-Gal: Fuc alpha1->2 Gal alpha 1->3 galactosyltransferase (alpha 1->3 galactosyltransferase or histo-blood group B transferase). O alleles encode proteins without glycosyltransferase function The secretor gene FUT2 located at 19q13.3 and codes for the activity of the glycosyltransferasesin concert with the FUT1 gene coding for H antigen, needed to assemble both the ABO and Lewis blood groups.They are active in places like goblet and mucous gland cells which interact with each other and lead to secretions of antigens in the fluids. The expression patterns of both the genes are different. The FUT1 (H) gene is dominantly expressed in the erythroid tissues which lead to the formation of the H enzyme whereas the FUT2 (secretor) gene is expressed in the secretory tissues and lead to the formation of secretor enzyme. The product of the H enzyme or H gene resides on the erythrocytes and product of secretor gene resides on mucins in secretions. If an individual lack these alleles, he/she will not be able express the above active enzymes therefore they would lack the substrates for the A or B glycosyltransferases and hence they would not express the A and B epitopes. Relationship of ABH Secretor status and Lewis system Lewis typing is sometimes used for the de facto determination of the ABH secretor status. The production of Lewis antigens is genetically controlled. Individuals possessing the Lewis (Le) gene would produce the Lewis antigens which are carried in the plasma by different substances and are absorbed onto the Red blood Cells present in ones blood. The ABO determinants and H/h blood groups determinants are structurally related to Lewis blood determinants. FUT1 provide the glycans for glycosyltransferases which convert Lewis antigen to ABH antigens. FUT2 allele is expressed in the secretor and is responsible for the expression of type1 H determinant. The secretors convert their Lewis a antigen to Lewis b therefore they are (a-b+) and the non-secretor are (a+b-) as they lack the FUT2 responsible for glycosyltransferase which could convert Lewis a antigen to Lewis b antigen. Lewis (Le) gene and Secreting (Se) gene interact with each other. Initially Lewisais formed and if Se gene is absent in an individual the Lewisa substance is absorbed on the RBC and the individual is typed as Lewisa but in secretors the Se gene controls the activation of the H gene which causes addition of an additional sugar to Lewisa which convert it to Lewisb. Secretors contain both Lewisa and Lewisb in their plasma but absorb Lewisb preferentially on the red blood cells and the individual is typed as Lewisb. Hence we could interpret that presence of Lewis gene would type an individual as Lewisa positive or Lewisb negative or vice versa. An individual could not be positive for both. A person containing both Lewis gene and Secreting gene are typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb positive whereas a person having the Lewis gene but not the secretor gene is typed as Lewisa positive and Lewisb negative. Individual who does not have Lewis gene regardless of secretor gene is typed as Lewisa negative and Lewisb negative. Note: Lewis Double Negative (LDN) is a sub type of non secretors but Lewis typing cannot be used for them to determine the ABH secretor status. Detection methods The presence and absence of the antigens in the body fluids could be detected by Agglutination Inhibition and Lewis typing. Agglutination Inhibition test could be divided into two parts:- Part I Antibody Neutralization: To determining ones secretor status, the saliva of the individual is mixed by the antiserum (Anti-A, Anti-B or Anti-H) available commercially. In secretors the soluble substances i.e. blood group antigens will react with the antibodies present in the antiserum and will get neutralized. Part II Agglutination Inhibition: The bed blood cells obtained commercially are added to the test mixture. In secretors agglutination of the RBC do not take place as no free antibodies are available to agglutinate them. All the antibodies have reacted with the soluble antigens present in the saliva whereas in non-secretors agglutination would occur upon addition of the RBC as no blood group antigens are present in the saliva so antibodies present in the antiserum are not neutralized and hence would be free to react with the test RBC cells which are added to the test mixture. Hence agglutination is a negative test for secretor status and positive test for the non-secretor status. Note: Anti-H lectin containing phytohaemagglutinin virtually specific for human RBC. Thirteen Cucurbitaceaespecies have been investigated for the anti-H activity present in their seed lectins. Lectins has been extracted and purified from Ulexeuropaeus seeds. It could be used to demonstrate the H secretor status of blood group O individual and also for subgrouping the blood group A individuals. Lewis typing: Individuals carrying the Lewis gene produce Lewis antigens that are carried by the plasma and are also adsorbed on the red blood cells. Lewis antigens do not reside only on the red blood cells. Initially the gene gives rise to Lewisa. If Se gene is present it activates H gene which interact with the Lewisa and add a sugar to Lewisa and hence get converted it to Lewisb. Both Lewisa and Lewisb in present in the plasma of the secretors. If the Se gene is not present then the Lewisa substance is adsorbed on the red cells and individuals are typed as Lewisa. The secretor status of an individual could be determined with help of Lewisa and Lewisb antibodies mixed with an individuals saliva and observing the agglutination macroscopically. Disease Susceptibility among Secretors and Non-secretors Digestive system Non-secretors are more prone to the diseases caused by the oral bacteria in the digestive system of an individual. It includes ulcers, celiac diseases gastric carcinoma pernicious anemia etc. It could lead to dysplasia or increase in the number of cavities present in the digestive tract. Non-secretors are less resistant to the infection caused by Helicobacter pylori which could lead to the formation of peptic and duodenal ulcers. It could easily colonize and cause inflammation in the non-secretors. The non-secretors lack the blood group antigens in the mucus secretions therefore H.pylori attach to the walls of the digestive tract and cause infection. The secretors have a tendency to secrete free ABH antigens in their intestinal secretions which effect the bacterial and lectins adherence to the microvilli present in the gut. The secretors produce these antigens and act as a competitive disadvantage from preventing H.pylori attachment. These antigens act as a decoy in the secretors whi ch prevent them from attaching with the host tissues. The non-secretors also show a lower IgG immune response to the H.pylori. They have excessive rate of bleeding, perforation and development of stomach ulcers but correlation between these complications and the secretor status have not been documented yet. The non-secretors are not able to turn off the digestive enzymes and hence they produce large amount of enzyme pepsin and hence are more prone to duodenal ulcers. 50% of the duodenal ulcers are present in non-secretors. 30-40% of group O individuals are affected by the duodenal ulcers and 15- 20 % are affected by the gastric ulcers. They act as a multiplicative risk factor with the gene coding for hyperpepsinogenemia I which impact in the risk of duodenal ulcers. Group A individuals have a higher tendency of having gastric cancer and pernicious anemia. Statistics shows that 20% of the group A individuals are affected by gastric cancers and 25% are affected by the pernicious anemi a. Oral pathology The non-secretors are more prone to oral diseases like mouth and esophagus cancer, epithelial dysplasia etc. They have more cavities than secretors. Diabetes The ABH non-secretors and Lewis negative (Le a-b-) individuals have a high risk of developing insulin dependent diabetes or complications arising from diabetes. Secretors with juvenile diabetes have a low chance of developing retinopathy. The ABH non secretors which are affected by insulin dependent diabetes mellitus the mean level of C3c and C4 is lower as compared to ABH secretors. Metabolic Syndrome X The Lewis negative men are predisposing to syndrome X and prothrombic metabolism. They have high levels of BMI, SBP, triglycerides and low rather fasting levels of serum insulin and plasma glucose. This relationship is not true for women and is only applicable for the men. Respiratory System   Secretors have an added protection against the harmful environmental assaults directed towards our lungs and as usual non-secretors have a health disadvantage. They are over represented among the people suffering from influenza viruses A and B, rhinoviruses, respiratory synsytial virus and echinoviruses. The secretors who are miners or smokers do receive a protection against the disastrous effects of the cigarette smoking. Asthma is very common among the individuals working in the coal mines. Upon research it was concluded that asthma among them is also related to the non-secretor phenotype present in them. The non-secretor has a tendency to snore and are more prone to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease). Heart disease The ABH non-secretor phenotype have a high risk of developing myocardial infarction and Lewis negative individuals have a high risk of developing chronic heart disease (CHD) and also ischemic heart disease (IHD). They contain high levels of triglycerides. Alcoholism has a positive interaction with the Lewis negative individuals. Alcohol consumption is protective in these individuals. Autoimmune Disease   Autoimmune disorders such as ankylosing spondylitis, reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthropathy, Sjogrens syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and Graves disease are more prone in non-secretors. The ABH non-secretors affected with graves disease produces high levels of antitubulin antibodies as compared to secretors and are unable to produce the water soluble glycoproteins in the saliva. Fetal Loss and Infertility ABO antigens are also found on the sperm of the secretors. These are obtained from the seminal secretions present in them. ABO incompatibility could exist between the wife and husband if could affect the fertility of an individual. This issue has not been properly studied and is therefore under research. Rheumatic Fever The secretors and group O individuals are resistant to Rheumatic fever and more number of cases have been recorded in the non-secretors. Secretor status could also determine whether the rheumatic fever would be followed by streptococcal pharyngitis or not. Neisseria species The non-secretors who do not produce water soluble antigens in the saliva are at the risk of getting infected by Neisseria meningcococcal disease. The immune capabilities of the secretor provide a relative protection in the secretors. The ABH non-secretors produce low level of anti-meningococcal salivary IgM antibodies which provide protection to the secretors against the microorganism. Candida species Non-secretors are barriers of candida species and therefore are frequently affected by the candida infections. The glycocompounds secreted by secretors in the body fluids inhibit adhesins present on the yeast which are responsible for their adhesion with the body tissues. This leads to the development of the chronic hyperplastic Candidiasis. Statistics shows that 68% on the non-secretors are affected by chronic hyperplastic candidiasis. Non-secretor women are affected by recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. An individual with a combination of non-secretors and absence of Lewis gene are at relative risk of developing recurrent idiopathic vulvovaginal Candidiasis. Tumor Markers The individuals with inactive Se (se/se) alleles and homozygous active Le alleles (Le/Le) allele have a highest mean value of CA19-9 tumor marker. The Lewis negative individuals irrespective of Se genotype have negative values for CA19-9. The Lewis negative individuals have higher mean value for DU PAN-2 as compared to Le-positive individuals. We can conclude that CA 19-9 marker is not an appropriate tumor marker for Le-negative individuals but DU-PAN-9 is an appropriate tumor marker. Bacteria Urinary Tract Infections Non-secretors are at a higher risk of getting recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) and renal scars as compared to secretors. This susceptibility is higher among negative Lewis subset. Statistics of a study done on women affected with recurrent urinary tract infection stated that 29% of the non-secretor women were affected by UTI and 26% of Lewis (a-b-) women were affected by the UTI. The non-secretor phenotype and blood group B and AB phenotype work together to increase the risk of UTI among women. Women and children suffering from renal scarring with and without the antibiotic treatment for UTI are prone to UTI and pyelonephritis. 55-60% of non-secretors develop renal scars and 16% on secretors develop renal scars. C-reactive protein levels, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and body temperature are higher in the non-secretors that in secretors with recurrent UTI. Conclusion It concludes that there exist a statistical association between the individuals blood-group secretor phenotype and the diseases they are susceptible to. So knowing your secretor status is advantageous as we can use the nutritional supplements more intelligently and effectively. It also makes us aware of the diseases, illness and metabolic dysfunction we are prone to, difference in the levels of intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity, propensities towards blood clotting, tumor markers and different ingredients of breast milk so that we can manage them before hand and would be prepared for them in the near future.

Dr. Martin Luther King

I believe that history has re-shaped the truth behind Dr. Martin Luther King’s life as a leader of the anti-racism and anti-segregation movement. Although he had been given many awards, including the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to end segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other non-violent means, obviously after his sudden death, many of his radical ideas were omitted simply because they are not what the politicians wanted the public to know. I think Taylor Branch was right in saying that â€Å"our nation has slept for decades under the spell of myths grounded in race.† King had protested on the deliberate discrimination of blacks by policies that promote the whites. What King said in his speech â€Å"Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence† is to put equality among blacks and whites in the forefront of every US citizen. He may have gained awards but his more radical ideas were forgotten or were left behind, encapsulated in myths that were more appealing. And people only accepted what were told to them. An example of this deliberate downplaying of King’s radical ideas is written in Branch’s article. Blacks were recruited and sent to the Vietnam War together with the whites yet the ones who gained more popularity were the whites. The blacks were set aside. White supremacy is very evident. Again, this is the result of the dominating rule of racial discrimination. Work Cited: â€Å"Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence.† 4 May 1999. 9 April 2008. < http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/058.html> Branch, Taylor. â€Å"The Last Wish of Martin Luther King.† 6 April 2008. 9 April 2008. < http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/06/opinion/06branch.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin>